Associative and productive strategy for the fish farming sector in Cumbal and Potosí, Nariño

RESEARCH

ARTICLE

Alba Lucy Ortega-Salas¹, Vilma Yolanda Gómez-Nieves²

¹,² Aquaculture Research Group (GIAC, in the Spanish acronym), Vice-Rectory of Postgraduate Studies and International Relations, Program of Engineering in Aquaculture Production, Universidad de Nariño, Pasto-Nariño-Colombia

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Received: 12 november 2018 and Approved: 25 april 2019, Updated: 17 june 2019

DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.4

                                                  SUMMARY. Introduction: Fishing and aquaculture support the development of local rural communities in the country as these activities provide economic sustenance. They are vital for the economy of rural farmer and indigenous communities, because they are part of family economies with small- and medium-scale production. Aims: To proposed strategies combining mutual cooperation, external visibility, and productive results, which encourage associativity and create an environment that encourages knowledge transfer, fosters social relationships, and improves productivity small and medium trout farmers located in Cumbal and Potosí Nariño. Methods: The aforementioned factors were measured in the productive chain’s quality and competitiveness. The study adopted a mixed approach comprising collection, analysis, and correlating quantitative and qualitative data in a single study to address the problem statement in a case of the associative and productive strengthening of 40 small and medium trout farmers. Results and conclusions: The study found that, as an associative strategy, the strategic direction in the business network provides clear actions for the development as an organization and simultaneously allows to consolidate a method of thinking and feeling as a whole, facilitating the development of the sector as a self-regulated organizational entity that generates actions in the short and medium term to meet its common objectives. This is reflected in the improvement in productivity and standardization of processes and procedures that together contribute to improving the productivity and competitiveness of the rural sector.

Keywords: Fish farming, Associativity, Business Network, productivity, competitiveness.

Estrategia asociativa y productiva para el sector piscícola de Cumbal y Potosí Nariño

RESÚMEN. Introducción: La pesca y la acuicultura apoyan el desarrollo de las comunidades rurales locales en el país, ya que estas actividades proporcionan sustento económico. Son vitales para la economía de los agricultores rurales y las comunidades indígenas, porque son parte de las economías familiares con producción a pequeña y mediana escala. Objetivos: Proponer estrategias que combinen la cooperación mutua, la visibilidad externa y los resultados productivos, que fomenten la asociatividad y creen un ambiente que fomente la transferencia de conocimiento, fomente las relaciones sociales y mejore la productividad de los pequeños y medianos productores de trucha ubicados en Cumbal y Potosí Nariño. Métodos: los factores antes mencionados se midieron en la calidad y competitividad de la cadena productiva. El estudio adoptó un enfoque mixto que comprende la recopilación, el análisis y la correlación de datos cuantitativos y cualitativos en un solo estudio para abordar el enunciado del problema en un caso de fortalecimiento asociativo y productivo de 40 pequeños y medianos productores de trucha. Resultados y conclusiones: El estudio encontró que, como estrategia asociativa, la dirección estratégica en la red de negocios proporciona acciones claras para el desarrollo como organización y al mismo tiempo permite consolidar un método de pensar y sentir como un todo, facilitando el desarrollo del sector como una entidad organizacional autorregulada que genera acciones a corto y mediano plazo para cumplir con sus objetivos comunes. Esto se refleja en la mejora de la productividad y la estandarización de los procesos y procedimientos que, en conjunto, contribuyen a mejorar la productividad y la competitividad del sector rural.

Palabras claves: Piscicultura, Asociatividad, Red empresarial, productividad, competitividad.

Introduction

Fishing and aquaculture support the development of local rural communities in the country as these activities provide economic sustenance. They are vital for the economy of rural farmer and indigenous communities, because they are part of family economies with small- and medium-scale production.

Productive chains include that of fish farming have been operational in Colombia since several decades. These chains connect producers who form small associations such as Limited Resource Aquacultures (AREL per its acronym in Spanish) and micro and small aquaculture enterprises (MSAEs). In a pyramid, ARELs are the base and include 87.68% of Colombia’s fish farmers, who are plagued by low incomes and limited development arising from insufficient technology, administration, market, capital, services and other factors such as access to permits, licenses, road infrastructure and government support. For AREL fish farmers, these limitations affect the agricultural sector’s productivity and competitiveness. Therefore, special strategies must be framed to address these limitations (FEDEACUA, 2015).

One of the greatest challenges faced by the various fish farmer organizations is the lack of interaction and communication. This has limited their ability to maintain a sound organizational environment that facilitates cooperation for greater visibility and have options and/or advantages that favor collective where common interests are prioritized over individual interests, thus improving producers’ conditions and enabling access to knowledge, technologies, economic support, among others. Therefore, the present study aims to strengthen the associative and productive components through a mixed research process that addresses the subject.

Consequently, this project proposed strategies combining mutual cooperation, external visibility, and productive results, which encourage associativity and create an environment that encourages knowledge transfer, fosters social relationships, and improves productivity. These factors are measured in the productive chain’s quality and competitiveness, which result in economic benefits (Hernandez, 2011).

Materials and Methods

This study adopted a multimethod approach, considering the quantitative and qualitative paradigm, using a nonexperimental design because there was no intentional manipulation of the variables. In other words, the phenomena were analyzed as in their natural context (Hernandez and Fernandez, 2003). Within these types of nonexperimental designs, the study was transactional; thus, data were collected during a predefined time, followed by analysis of the important properties such as people, groups, and communities. The relations and situations generated were subjected to a descriptive–explanatory analysis (Hernández and Collado, 2004). Furthermore, a deductive-inductive method was used. An inference approach based on logic and related to the study of specific events and their fundamental characteristics was adopted as the basis to present an interpretation, image, or faithful representation (description) of the phenomena studied. As regards the methods of information gathering, a document analysis was conducted based on a literature review of the sector and the theoretical framework, which includes studies on associativity, sector assessments, and business networks. In addition, 40 surveys were conducted with 40 trout farmers in Cumbal and Potosí for their assessment and characterization. 

Results

Success and critical factors obtained from the external and internal assessments of the fish farming sector

The following are results of the study on the fish farming sector. In terms of the external assessment, the study results are presented based on a literature review  on the fishing sector. The information collected was set into POAM and MEFE matrices. With regard to the internal assessment, the survey results and their descriptive analyses by frequency were used, which were systematized with the PMCI and MEFI matrices.  External and internal assessments were made through the SWOT and SFAM matrix. 

Strategic assessment—external analysis

Information gathered through literature review was placed in threat or opportunity cells, as appropriate. This identification was transferred to the POAM matrix to determine the high-impact variables. The external analysis, consolidated in the Opportunity and Threats Profile in the POAM average, is shown in

(Table 1).

Table 1. "Tool: POAM Profile of opportunities and threats of the environment"

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Table 1 indicates that the fish farming organizations studied have a medium response capacity toward opportunities and threats in the sector. There is  a need for better strategies that help in availing the advantage of existing opportunities and minimizing the possible adverse effects of external threats.  In addition to leveraging opportunities, it is important prevent external threats that may affect the sector’s competitiveness.

For Cumbal and Potosí, aquaculture is an alternative given that the most vulnerable rural communities tend to have a broader range of subsistence strategies, particularly because of their situation of uncertainty. An FAO/World Bank study on farming systems, which was based on 70 crops in the global context, highlighted the following five key factors to counter poverty: intensification, diversification, increase in the asset base, increase in farm revenue, and exit from agriculture (Halwart, Funge-Smith, & Moelh, 2006).

According to Dixon, Gulliver, & Gibbon (2001), within diversification, aquaculture was evaluated as the only and most reliable manner to reduce poverty in rural communities and future generations. They also stated that it is essential to increase the competitiveness of small farms to increase the capacity of small producers in agriculture systems to respond adequately to trade, as well as the opening up of the market and market development. Therefore, the following factors must be included: group training on business, management, and administration techniques; improved technologies for high-value production; reduction of entry barriers for small enterprises; strengthening of partnerships; and facilitating  or partially financing rural infrastructure development.

Internal Assessment

A survey on socioeconomic, business, productivity, environmental and commercial information factors was needed for internal assessment of the businesses in the fish farming sector in Cumbal and Potosí. Based on the these factors, their strengths and weaknesses were determined and placed into an internal categorization profile matrix (ICPM), which classifies   them as having high, medium, and low impact. The inputs in this matrix generated the high-impact variables weighted in the MEFI matrix, which further determined the degree of internal positioning of the companies in the fish sector (Table 2), adapted from (Serna, 2014) and (Fred, 2013)). Analysis of the internal context shows that the total weighted scored is less than the average (2.5), which implies that fish farmers have serious weaknesses and that it is necessary to create strategies to improve their internal environment. These strategies must determine the direction, route, and target that each producer wants to achieve through the activities of associative fish farming groups in Cumbal and Potosí. The challenges that small producers face are tougher because their activities are part of a changing, ambiguous, and demanding environment in the optimization of the final product. Saz, Gil & Marcuello (2007) stated that in a changing environment, there is a need for competitive advantages and actions that support service with a capacity for early and agile responses to any internal or external problem that may arise.

Table 2. Strategic Diagnosis - Internal Analysis: Organizational Audit

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Success and critical factors

To identify strategies based on the analysis of success and critical factors, the data from the POAM and MEFE matrices were taken. It was found that the fishing sector is below average in terms of effort, to frame strategies that enable leveraging the opportunities and overcoming external threats, although the total weight of opportunities is greater than the total weighted value of the threats. Furthermore, the ICPM and MEFI matrices were analyzed by evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of the internal context. These matrices revealed a weak internal strategic position and highlighted that their internal forces (strengths) outweigh their weaknesses.

Subsequently, critical factors were established on the basis of strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, and threats, which had a high weighted value. Strategies were formulated to leverage strengths and opportunities to counteract weaknesses and address latent threats in the environment. The strategy formation analytical matrix (SFAM) is outlined as follows:

FO strategies: Strategies applied to a company’s internal strengths to leverage the window of external opportunities. 

DO Strategies: Strategies aimed at overcoming internal weaknesses by leveraging external opportunities. 

FA Strategies: Strategies that leverage the strengths of the business to prevent or mitigate the impact of external threats. 

DA Strategies: Defensive tactics that aim to reduce internal weaknesses and prevent threats to the environment. 

The strategies obtained in this matrix will act as inputs to form the network’s objectives  (Table 3).

Table 3. Tool: MPC Competitive Profile Matrix. Fred (2013, p.83)

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Based on the internal and external analyses of the fish farming sector in Cumbal and Potosí, an improvement plan was framed (Table 4), which further led to strategic challenges (Table 5). 

Table 4. "Phase: Strategic design Tool: DOFA matrix" Serna (2014, p.187) and Fred (2013, p.177)

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Table 5. Strategic challenges

Administrative processes with their respective strategic lines of actions to structure the business network

To overcome the challenges, administrative processes with strategic actions that actively involve the participating actors, with their respective strengths, actions, and impact expectations are necessary. These administrative processes facilitate the strategic actions of the business network and its tactical lines of action to be implemented from the business network’s coordinating unit, which is considered the main engine that manages and streamlines the strategic challenges, which requires coordination of the horizontal and vertical network.

The network is horizontal when net profits are generated, which are directly allocated to different companies that compete within the same subsector or link in the production chain. This leads to greater competition and expands markets, coverage, positioning, and negotiating power through the joint actions between companies with relatively homogeneous capital, qualities, processes, and similar products. The network is vertical when net profits are directly allocated among companies and institutions on different links of the value chain, such as from supplier/distributor to many distributors/producers. The processes, products, and qualities are dissimilar (there is a need for collaboration between companies with uniformity and heterogeneous capital) (Rosales R., 1997). The following are the main guidelines to generate an organizational culture and strategic direction.

Proposing a management system that improves the business network’s processes and procedures

Implementation Plan

Once the administrative processes and strategic direction were identified, a plan for implementation was created based on Serna (2014, p.254) to optimize the processes and results of developing the network with management systems through a holistic approach that combines quality and sustainability in one system as an instrument to maintain the status quo, manage change and improvement, and provide added value to the business network. This enables processes to be run effectively and efficiently, thus promoting continuous improvement and the opportunity to optimize processes and procedures according to stakeholder needs and improving the business network’s environment that bolsters the sector’s competitiveness.

To create an Implementation plan, it was necessary to identify possible pilot projects to develop the network, highlighting scopes, responsible parties, indicators, and an implementation timetable to have a clearer outlook and methodologies, and thus, meet the proposed objectives. Furthermore, activities were carried out to socialize and coordinate progress with communities through the use of qualitative and quantitative management indicators. (Table 6) outlines the strategic projects of the fish farmers network with their indicators corresponding to the framework project, which is titled, “Innovation in associative production, products and work to strengthen competitiveness and sustainable management of water resources for trout fish farmers in the department of Nariño through the business network.”        

Tabla 6. Herramienta: Escala cualitativa calificación de desempeño

Evaluation

Evaluation and monitoring of the implementation plan is needed by creating a chart that measures the execution of the strategic plans. This chart will establish the compliance measurement frequency for an indicator, the measurement period for actions developed by each strategic project, the expected performance index for the project with its corresponding ratings of excellent, good, regular, and critically inefficient. This analyzes the measurement and establishes the proposed actions, which can be preventive or corrective. (Table 8) provides an example of how strategic projects should be evaluated, for which (Table 7) is used.

Table 7. Tool: Dashboard - Resume of the indicator "Serna (2014, p.295) and Fred (2013, Cap.9)"

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Table 8. Phase: Implementation. Tool: Implementation plan. Serna (2014, p.254)

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Success and critical factors obtained from the internal and external assessment of the fish farming sector

According to the index of departmental competitiveness in Colombia, Nariño, despite being a department with great diversity and natural wealth, along with Casanare, Cesar, and Cauca, ranks among the lowest at the national level. It ranks between 18 and 29, according to the Colombian department competitiveness scale. This same index defines the department of Nariño’s profile as low level, with nonconsolidated progress and average heterogeneity among the dimensions of competitiveness (CEPAL, 2014).

According to the third agriculture census, in the department of Nariño, there are 1,285 productive agriculture units (PAUs) with fish farming activity, representing 5.15% of the national total. In addition, there are 17,621 productive agriculture units with fishing activity, which represent 17.3% of the total national  fishing activity. Cumbal has 150 PAUs with aquaculture activities,  3 of which are located in Potosí. The municipalities of Cumbal and Potosí are part of the 64 municipalities of Nariño. According to 2017 population projections and estimates by the DANE (2014), the municipality of Cumbal has 30,274 inhabitants recognized within an indigenous ethnic group, representing 99.97% of the population. The total area of the municipality of Cumbal is 63,263 Has; of which, 9174 Has are used for agriculture. There are 6,497 productive agricultural units in the municipality of Cumbal; of which, 2,589 are used for subsistence farming. The total area of the municipality of Potosí is 1,425 Has; of which, 568 Has are used for agriculture. Cumbal’s estimated and projected population for 2017 is 9,780 inhabitants; 98.3% of which are indigenous. There are 975 productive agricultural units in the municipality of Cumbal; 656 of which are primarily used for subsistence farming. 

While the fish farming activity of the municipalities of Cumbal and Potosí exists since several years, it has not seen sustained growth, limited mostly to subsistence production and a low product surplus percentage for trade. The limited growth is because of the lack of an organization of small producers, limited knowledge of regulations within associative organizations, scant community commitment, scarce technical advice, few opportunities to access credit, and state abandonment, which led to micro and family businesses working independently and disjointedly and with fierce competition among them. This was exacerbated by limited financing and investment made improve the administrative, technological, industrialization, and value-added generation components, resulting in a weak internal strategic position as seen in the competitiveness indices described earlier.

According to the external assessment, there are limiting factors in terms of budget and lack of ease of access to financing and credit to incentivize technological development. Moreover, there is sparse cross-discipline staff to address these types of processes.  This leads to low cohesion and a weak chain link structure with incipient development of supplier networks of equipment, inputs, and services, as well as paralysis of the commercial structure. Furthermore, there is a low agro-industrial development with deficiencies in productivity and specialization in productive processes. The sector has experienced public and private institutional atomization, and weak control in monitoring this activity. In addition to a low institutional capacity for technical assistance and transferring technology, this resulted in poor competitiveness and weak national production projections. This is evident in the internal assessment in which 70% of those surveyed receive technical assistance through SENA, while 30% do not. However, this assistance is not long term, which highlights the need to increase the number of trained staff to improve the productive, economic, and financial variables in the municipalities studied. In comparison to the competitors, those who do not receive technical assistance are at a disadvantage because they do not incorporate technical, productive, and organizational quality processes that aid the activity’s profitability and sustainability over time.

The internal analysis was based on the analysis of the productive system to develop preventive and corrective actions to improve the sector’s productivity and competitiveness. Therefore, past studies on the physical, chemical, productive, health, sociocultural, environmental, and commercial factors were analyzed along with that of the fish farmers. With the study  results, further study on the activity’s potentialities is recommended, such as the topography of the land, climate, the availability of water resources, labor, among others, in addition to the productive, competitive, and environmental management to train, create measures, and monitor controls in terms of productive, cultural, normative, political-administrative, and institutional aspects at the national level to ensure the activity’s permanence in the future. This contributes to not only the social, economic, and environmental setting of the population, but also the activity’s sustainable production over time, developing under the appropriate criteria and techniques, without ceasing to be economically viable and socially acceptable. This facilitates interactions between producers within the various groups and two-way feedback with interinstitutional entities that enable collaboration for benefits that promote local and regional development, as well as visibility for the sector. With the results of the internal assessment, producers were trained on subjects that were developed in section 4 of this report.

A management system that improves the business network’s processes and procedures

The problem or need was identified once the external and internal assessments of the fish farmers and their context had been analyzed. Through a participatory assessment with the help of a facilitator, in this case, the group of researchers, the participants mediated the community's problems and prioritized a "root production problem" that, when overcome, could help resolve other related difficulties.

This process showed that the root problem must be identified through simple and illustrative tools that identify weaknesses, opportunities, strengths, and threats, enabling participants to reflexively appropriate the problem under discussion. The root problems identified were low productivity, inefficient marketing, and inadequate creation of strategic partnerships, which hinders rural organizations’ access to science, technology, and innovation. Therefore, change could be brought about by strengthening the business network through strategic direction, which would lead to benefits that would not be achieved if they were isolated and disjointed, such as improved productivity and competitiveness. According to Machado (2009), for a productive transformation in local rural areas, different actors must involve in diversifying productive and revenue-generating activities, strengthened by social organization and political participation that enables technological developments amidst cultural diversity. Easy availability of raw materials, increased bargaining power with suppliers, boosting productivity, and a high value-added product are some of the advantages of the process (Ortega Salas A. , 2014)

Hence, meetings were scheduled to reinforce the shared vision of the association and its business network, using strategies such as video testimonies from participants in similar successful as well as unsuccessful experiences. This is interesting because it promotes networking by exchange of knowledge and information, thus strengthening cooperation within and between diverse organizations, understanding that associativity is an adaptation reaction or mechanism to survive or benefit from opportunities in a specific competitive environment. In these meetings, the corresponding analysis and discussion of the assessments were carried out, highlighting the importance of cooperation and articulation of efforts between companies, as it can effectively contribute to solving problems and addressing weaknesses. Accordingly, 100% of the trained fish farmers were able to integrate into the business network. However, it is necessary to maintain their interest and motivation in the long term. In this regard, the Commission for the Promotion of Small and Medium Enterprises (2005) suggested that seeking common benefits at lower costs is important to reduce uncertainty and address the inherent weaknesses of micro-enterprises.

The possible projects that could be implemented for improvement were discussed. Therefore, analysis and discussion of the internal and external assessments of the sector studied; it was important to identify possible organizational and technological projects; highlight scopes, responsible parties, indicators, and an implementation schedule for a clear outlook and methodologies that meet the objectives. As a result, a project titled "Innovation in the associative production, products and work to strengthen competitiveness and sustainable management of a water resource for trout fish farmers in the department of Nariño through a business network" was created. This project was presented in light of the departmental plans for science, technology, and innovation. This project is developed with the involvement of stakeholders in the horizontal and vertical networks, who contribute their knowledge to structure it. Pilot projects that are easy to implement and that provide tangible results to demonstrate the advantages of their outcomes and to motivate the continuous integration of

the network were proposed.

Strengthening the management of the business network

A coordinating unit to consolidate the development of the business network was proposed. This unit seeks strategies to provide advice and technical assistance, as well as to coordinate support from external consultants who can provide the necessary support to facilitate associativity and joint work. The coordinating unit will consist of professionals, whose main objective would be to create bonds of trust between the companies that are part of the network. If there is no trust, a committed relationship of cooperation cannot be created. Micro-entrepreneurs must have trust in the capacity and commitment while also favor processes that result in economic benefits, knowledge, and technology, which are key items of interest to entrepreneurs. Accordingly, the work of the unit coordinator is critical. The objectives of the coordinating unit are as follows: eliminate all obstacles in the creation of the network; promote and guide the process of building the network; promote the rapid learning of network processes; and foster knowledge and application of the network’s strategic direction (Ortega-Salas & Belalacazar-Belalcazar, 2016).

Currently, the coordinating unit of the business network is being established. Researchers and universities coordinate the activities through the research study, “Associative, productive and administrative strengthening of small and medium fish farmers in Cumbal and Potosí, through a business network." This has enabled fish farmers to stay united, receive technical assistance through knowledge transfer, and structure innovation projects that will enable future access to State resources and international cooperation. When fish farmers gain experience and organize themselves as a legally constituted business network, they are expected to coordinate exchange between organizations of producers, customers, operators, suppliers, and public and private entities that support the development of the sector through their social purpose. This optimizes the planning capacity, diversification, and improvement of services of every stakeholder.

In the final proposal for associative cooperation for innovation, it is necessary to establish a time line for the development of projects to be implemented and prioritized. Developing this step is intended to move forward with the network's operational actions. Therefore, a schedule of activities was drawn up with the corresponding responsible parties; indicators; duties; and short-, medium-, and long-term actions in accordance with the associative model, the needs of producers, and the proposal discussion held.

Improving fish farmers’ productive processes through training

To empower fish farmers, it is necessary to strengthen their predisposition toward associativity, such as commitment, cooperation, knowledge, technology, economic benefits, and trust (Arias et al., 2006). Therefore, it is necessary to adopt lucid-pedagogical strategies to have a significant impact on these factors (group activities, games, mimic exercises, billboards, and other actions that enable fish farmers to be more productive and competitive), and thus establish trust, dialogue, cooperation, interest, solidarity, respect, leadership, and creativity. Likewise, they have been learning some of the business and market processes, as well modernizing their information and communication technologies. In short, it can be affirmed that the lucid-pedagogical activities have a positive impact on the predisposition factors toward associativity, given that all of the fish farmers decided to actively participate in the associative process to generate social capital and promote sustainable development in the region (Ortega Salas A. B., 2017).

These actions strengthen rural social innovation processes by improving interrelationships among their main stakeholders and contribute to acquiring new productive abilities to meet demand with strategic knowledge and development of rural institutional structures for innovation, with an emphasis on small-scale production. In the long term, this will aid the development of services market, management of business plans for every productive project, emergence of supply and demand coordinators, and the drive for innovation to be institutionalized. However, to achieve this, it is necessary to strengthen the human component with acceptable acquired learning and used within the set of experiences that currently form the platform of skills and competencies of an innovation system based on trust, commitment, teamwork, and other factors that favor the growth of innovation. It also requires the expansion of successful local innovation on a larger scale, in terms of spaces or territories, but it is necessary to develop the learning capacities of productive organizations to innovate through acquiring and using available knowledge, managing their particular interests through the collective’s common purposes to establish priority agendas, and thus meet the goals and objectives of the business network with public and private institutional support (Paz & Hernández, 2013).

With respect to the productive component, it has been suggested that technical team in the business network has the necessary knowledge to promote and advice regarding the associative endeavors through the transfer of science, technology, and innovation, which is challenging in the absence of the producers who are not associated (Alonso, 2000). Likewise, they must be capable of assessing specific requirements to reach successful cooperative agreements through strategic partnerships with organizations that work complementarily to achieve a common objective.  Therefore, important agreements or conventions for production, distribution, and commercialization must be framed (Reyes, 2007).

Trout farmers have a weak strategic position within their business units given the many productive, commercial, environmental, financial, and administrative factors that must be improved so that their productive activity is comprehensively geared toward innovation. Therefore, the following strategies have been proposed, which are based on the analysis of internal and external factors, as well as the active participation of the beneficiaries: 

(i)     Create business synergies with universities, enabling the transfer of knowledge and interrelationships among various actors to access competitive and innovative settings in different scenarios and various alternatives with attractive markets that generate knowledge and development.

(ii)   Maintain an innovative mindset that is continuously committed to the demands of the network, sustaining the comprehensiveness of the concept of human talent  with the attitudes, behavior, capacities, knowledge, experiences, and skills with which each member must work.

(iii)Contribute to the work in the network, enabling the acquisition of knowledge and technology, which is possible by  fostering relationships with a high level of synergy and complementarity among entities. This enables training spaces and creates new forms of production and access to technologies that lead to product promotion, which in turn lead to cost reductions due to the proper processing of the product, along with greater efficiency and higher quality. 

(iv)Improve the sector's performance, quality, and positioning with a differentiated offer and greater added value coming from product and process improvements that facilitate standards certifications for new markets, develop brands, and strengthen the distribution logistics of each network member.

(v)   Promote the use of ICTs in products and incorporate technology and innovative tools in productive and administrative processes.

(vi)Involve producers in SENA and university training programs to improve production systems, administration, and the environment by implementing new techniques aimed at increasing productivity under conditions of sustainability over time, and thus generate technology transfer, as well as research and innovation processes that facilitate access to financing.

(vii)           Create new products through subproducts such as entrails, scales, and fins, while also generating new elements from trout meat such as essential fatty acids, elastin collagen, among others.

(viii)         Use new elements to build infrastructure that is  more accessible to producers and in harmony with the environment.

(ix)Frame strategies for the operational monitoring of the associative model focused on the business network, under the responsibility of the network’s manager-administrator through the use of qualitative and quantitative management indicators.

(x)   To verify the proposed model, a focus group with 10 regional experts in the subject of fish farming has been recommended. They will explain the model and monitor and evaluate the process for development. As regards resource allocation, fish farmers must be able to access resources. The money raised will be used to promote the product, support project implementation, and raise awareness of the objectives set for the sector and stakeholders with the goal of collaborating  to achieve them.

Conclusions

The business network in the fish farming sector is considered an associative strategy that enables cooperation among micro-enterprises that are voluntarily affiliated while maintaining their legal independence, which seeks to resolve common problems and generate individual and collective benefits with competitive advantages that could not be achieved individually. 

It is necessary to maintain continued coordination between universities, businesses, and the state through ties of cooperation, trust, and teamwork, which contributes to the collective efficiency that enable producers to apply knowledge and technology. This will generate equity in the economic benefits and improve the life conditions of the people dedicated to this activity.

Once the rural innovation processes are consolidated, it is necessary to promote the business network in public and private organizations to access different policies and programs for benefits and greater positioning in the agricultural sector.

In the external assessment, little effort was seen to follow the strategies to leverage the opportunities and prevent external threats. Therefore, it is necessary to create strategies that improve this scenario for producers to be more competitive.

The internal analysis of the sector studied reveals that the participating organizations  have a weak strategic position to strengthen their capabilities and reduce their weaknesses. This is evident in the business, productive, environmental, and commercial contexts.

The individual factors influencing the predisposition of fish farmers toward the business association, from the most to the least important, are the following: cooperation, trust, knowledge and technology, commitment, and economic benefits; which must be strengthened for the associative model to be successful.

The best development alternative for medium and small companies in this sector is through associativity, in which groups of companies form business networks to avail benefits that cannot be obtained individually.

The great challenge of the business network is to adapt the integration institutionalism according to the demands of local, regional, and national contexts, to the accumulated experience and the possibilities of each subregional scheme. Furthermore, achieving the social and political drive that stimulates the convergence and viability of the processes is a challenge.

Recommendations

It is necessary to continue to strengthen  producers' associativity,  by continuously building on the business network’s processes targeting associativity predisposition factors in terms of trust, commitment, leadership, and teamwork. Projects that improve infrastructure, production, and innovation, thus increasing their productivity and competitiveness, are necessary.

It is necessary to provide ongoing technical assistance in the productive units to improve the productive capacities of the fish farmers.

Information on the sector needs to be kept current to enable government entities to manage and provide current statistics.

Encourage cooperation, knowledge, technology, economic benefits, trust, and commitment in the business network, as predisposition factors for producers to stay associated.

Promote market studies on consumer preferences regarding trout in order to develop marketing strategies for the product and training for new markets. 

Seek cooperation with other countries to incentivize the exchange of ideas and new techniques developed for fish farming productivity.

The state must increase promotion of the sector to increase consumption in internal and external markets.

Create special accreditation granted by the association of trout exporters to maintain adequate quality standards.

The state should create a fund that facilitates SMEs access to lines of credit. Likewise, a database must be created of SMEs that have good credit to facilitate their access to financing.

Establish the granting of tax incentives to the sector by law, facilitating the supply of raw materials.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their sincere thanks to the fish producers in Cumbal and Potosí, to the Vice-Rectory for Postgraduate Studies and International Relations, to the GIAC Aquaculture Research Group, to the student Julieth Natalia Guevara, to the Aquaculture Production Engineering program, to the Universidad de Nariño and all the people who worked directly and indirectly on this important research process. 

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Fred, D. (2013). Conceptos de administración estratégica. . México.: 14ª ed. Pearson. .

Hernandez, L. D. (2011). Asociatividad empresarial y apropiacion de la cadena productiva como factores que impulsan la competitividad de las micro, pequeñas y medianas empresas:tres estudios de caso. Estudios Agrarios.

Machado, A. (2009). Ensayo para la Historia de Polítca de Tierras en Colombia. Bogotá: Gente Nueva.

Ortega Salas, A. (2014). Propuesta asociativa para fortalecer el sector piscícola del corregimiento de El Encano. Departamento de Nariño- Pasto, Colombia: [Tesis de Grado para optar al título de Magister en Administración y Competitividad]: Univerisdad Mariana.

Ortega Salas, A. B. (2017). Asociatividad Empresarial para fortalecer el sector Piscícola, caso: Red empresarial de Cumbal y Potosí en el Departamento de Nariño. . Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios.

Ortega Salas, A. S., Macías, L., J.N, Nieves, G., & V.Y. (2018). Diagnóstico interno de los productores de trucha arcoiris. Asociatividad Empresarial para fortalecer el Asociatividad Empresarial para fortalecer el sector Piscícola, caso: Red empresarial de Cumbal y Potosí en el Departamento de Nariño. Pasto, Colombia: Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios.

Paz, Á., & Hernández, R. (2013). Escalando innovaciones rurales. Obtenido de Link

Saz Gil, M., & Marcuello, C. (2007). Introducción de la Dirección Estratégica En Organizaciones que Gestionan Empleo con Apoyo. Zaragoza: Universidad de

Zaragoza,Departamento de Economía Economía.

Serna, G. (2014). Gerencia estratégica. Bogotá, Colombia.: Panamericana Editorial.

Como citar: Ortega-Salas, A. L.; Gómez-Nieves, V. Y. Associative and productive strategy for the fish farming sector in Cumbal and Potosí, Nariño. Revista Veterinaria y Zootecnia, v. 13, n. 2, p. 31-51, 2019. http:// vetzootec.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=275. DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.4

Esta obra está bajo una Licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento CC BY 

HOMA metabolic assessment in normoglycemic and diabetic canines

RESEARCH

ARTICLE

Franco González-Villar¹ , Francisco Perez-Bravo² 

¹ Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Chile

² Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology (INTA), University of Chile, Santiago, Chile

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Received: 06 september 2018, Approved: 24 march 2019, Updated: 16 june 2019

DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.2

                         SUMMARY. Introduction: Diabetes mellitus is caused by an increase in blood glucose levels, a phenomenon mediated by environmental and genetic factors. This increase in blood glucose levels may be due to a partial or absolute failure to produce insulin as well as a loss in tissue sensitivity to insulin. Given that diabetic patients respond only to insulin therapy and are mostly thin, canines can develop insulin resistance, without developing glucose intolerance or diabetes. Aims: We aim to evaluate insulin resistance using the mathematical model homeostatic model assessment (HOMA) in patients with different body condition. Insulin levels were determined using the IRMA assay, and X2 test and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used for the statistical analysis. Results: ANOVA between the groups showed no significant differences between the normoglycemic HOMA group of the obese and normal weight patients and between the diabetic and normal weight HOMA group. The X2 correlation index did not show a significant association between the body condition and the altered HOMA index (X2 = 3.056, p = 0.08). Insulin levels were higher in obese patients than in those with normal weight, although the difference was not significant (F = 1.004, p = 0.394). Conclusion: In addition, there were no significant differences in HOMA levels associated with increases in the body condition, which could be related with a higher state of insulin deficiency over the state of insulin resistance.

Evaluación metabólica del índice HOMA en caninos normoglicémicos y diabéticos

                         RESÚMEN.  Introducción: La Diabetes Mellitus es una patología producida por un aumento en los niveles de glucosa a nivel sanguíneo, fenómeno mediado por factores ambientales y genéticos. Esta alza en los niveles de glicemia se puede deber a una falla en la producción, ya sea parcial o absoluta de insulina, así como también por una pérdida en la sensibilidad a la insulina por parte de los tejidos. Dado que los pacientes diabéticos solo responden a manejos de insulinización, y que son en su mayoría delgados, estos caninos pueden tener insulinoresistencia, sin llegar a desarrollar intolerancia a la glucosa o diabetes. Objetivo: El objetivo de este trabajo fue evaluar la insulinoresistencia por medio del modelo matemático HOMA en pacientes con distinta condición corporal. Métodos: Se determinaron los niveles de insulina a través de ensayo IRMA y el análisis estadístico utilizó prueba de X2 y análisis de varianza ANOVA. Resultados: El análisis de varianza ANOVA entre los grupos, no mostró diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre el grupo HOMA normoglicémico del paciente obeso y normopeso, así como tampoco entre el grupo HOMA diabético y normopeso. El índice de correlación X2 no mostró una asociación significativa entre la condición corporal y el índice HOMA alterado, (X2 =3,056; p = 0.08). Los niveles de insulina fueron mayores en pacientes obesos respecto a normopeso, aunque esta diferencia no fue estadísticamente significativa (F = 1.004; p = 0.394). Conclusión: El estudio realizado no mostró diferencias significativas en los niveles HOMA asociada a aumentos en su condición corporal, lo cual se podría relacionar a un mayor estado de insulinodeficiencia por sobre el estado de insulinoresistencia.

Introduction

Diabetes mellitus is characterized by an increase in blood levels of glucose, mediated by environmental and genetic factors. This increase in blood glucose levels may be caused by a partial or complete failure to produce insulin as well as loss in tissue sensitivity to insulin (Feldman et al, 2014).

A recent study at the University of Pennsylvania found that human and canine islets of Langerhans are different. In humans, 54% correspond to β cells, 35% to α cells, and 11% to other cell types. However, in canines, 80% correspond to β cells, 10% to α cells, and 10% to pancreatic polypeptide and somatostatin; therefore, extensive damage of the pancreas is necessary for it to show signs, which could explain the later onset of diabetes mellitus in dogs. The loss of these β cells can explain the number of insulin-dependent canines, thus showing a similarity between canine and human type 1 diabetes (Cox et al, 2015).

Genetic predisposition, infections, medications causing insulin resistance, obesity, and pancreatitis are diabetes mellitus predisposing factors. This interaction results in an irreversible loss of pancreatic β-cell function together with insulin resistance status (Couto and Nelson, 2010).

After characterizing the canine genome, various chronic conditions and their breed predisposition have been studied. Thus, some breeds show a greater susceptibility to diabetes mellitus such as the Samoyed and the Cairn Terrier, whereas other breeds such as the Boxer, German Shepherd, and the Golden Retriever present a very low prevalence of this condition (Davison et al, 2005).

Studies on diabetic dogs have found polymorphisms in the major histocompatibility complex class II, specifically for the dog leukocyte antigen (DLA) haplotype (Abbas et al, 2014).

Studies in canines have found a correlation between diabetic dogs and the DLA haplotypes: DLA-DRB1, DLA-DQA1, and DLA-DQB1 (DRB1 009/DQA1 008, DRB1 015/DQA1 0061/DQB1 023, y DRB1 002/DQA1 009/DQB1 001), with significant increases in diabetic patients (Kennedy et al, 2006).

Studies on the prevalence of canine obesity conducted in North America by the Association for Pet Obesity Prevention have found that approximately 55% dogs and cats are overweight or obese to a certain extent, and of these, 45% are unnoticed by the owners (Churchill et al, 2016).

Obesity and its role in canine insulin resistance are controversial because some authors have found an obesity-related metabolic dysfunction in canines as well as in humans, and 20% obese dogs have this dysfunction at the metabolic level (Tvarijonaviciute et al, 2012). When assessing the alteration involved in insulin resistance, some authors have determined peripheral rather than hepatic resistance when canines were fed high fat hypercaloric diets, both at the visceral and peripheral levels (Kim et al, 2003). Despite this, some studies mainly focused on the omental visceral adipose tissue in canines have not found a correlation between this tissue and insulin resistance (Castro et al, 2015).

Australian studies assessing the possible factors involved in the absence of diabetes mellitus in obese dogs found that dogs with increased visceral adipose tissue do not decrease adiponectin secretion, which is one of the main insulin-sensitizing cytokines and whose decrease is one of the main insulin resistance factors present in obese individuals (Verkest et al, 2011).

Some studies have tried to establish methods to assess insulin resistance in dogs, e.g., the insulin resistance measurement mathematical model known as HOMA (homeostatic model assessment) establishes values for insulin resistance above 2.9 in dogs (Verkest et al, 2010). Despite being useful in clinical practice, these models are inaccurate when determining the progression from insulin resistance to glucose intolerance. In addition, the presence of pancreatic conditions frequently found in diabetic patients affects the accuracy in dogs (Ader et al, 2014).

Herein we assessed insulin resistance using the HOMA model in patients with different body conditions to elucidate the role of this metabolic condition in the development of glucose intolerance and/or diabetes.

Material and Methods

Blood sampling was performed through venipuncture in the cephalic vein, which was subsequently placed in a tube containing anticoagulant and in another with EDTA as an anticoagulant. The sample was centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 10 min at 21°C to separate the plasma and serum.

The study groups were divided into four subgroups: diabetic patients with insulin management, diabetic patients without insulin management, normal weight normoglycemic patients, and overweight or obese normoglycemic patients. Those patients presenting glycemia >200 mg/dl were diagnosed with diabetes, as established by the AAHA guidelines (Rucinsky et al, 2010), whereas those with glycemia up to 110 mg/dl were considered normoglycemic subjects. Body condition was assessed using a nine-point morphometric body condition score. Patients with scores 5/9 were considered to have an ideal body condition, those with a score >5/9 were overweight, and those with a score of 8 were obese, according to the WSAVA guidelines (Biourge et al, 2008).

A total of 79 patients were studied that were grouped into 24 diabetic patients without therapy, 16 diabetic patients receiving insulin therapy, 19 normal weight normoglycemic patients, and 20 obese or overweight normoglycemic patients. The HOMA index was calculated as (glucose level × insulin level)/405, considering normal levels as those below 2.9 (Verkest et al, 2010).

Insulin levels were measured using the Perkin Elmer Wallac 1470-002 Wizard Gamma Counter Kit. DIAsource INS-IRMA Kit presented an intra-assay coefficient of variation of 0.29%–2.93%, inter-assay coefficient of variation of 1.12%–3.16%, internal standard coefficient of variation under 2.27%, and a detection limit of 1.00 μUI/ml.

The HOMA index was assessed in eight diabetic patients with a body condition score of ≥6/9, 16 diabetic patients with a score of ≤5/9, 17 normoglycemic patients with a score of ≥6/9 (Table 1), and 15 patients with a score of 5/9, which was used as a control group (Table 2).

Table 1: HOMA index in overweight and obese patients.

Table 2: HOMA index in normal weight patients.

The correlation analysis was conducted using the 2 test for categorical variables, with 2 × 2 tables assessing body condition and HOMA index. The HOMA index difference of the different populations was studied by analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Results and Discussion

Breed data analysis was performed using ANOVA to identify the differences in HOMA indices between the purebreds and mixed breeds. No significant differences were observed in the obese purebreds and mixed breeds (F = 0.210; p = 0.649) as well as in normal weight patients in terms of the HOMA index (F = 0.027; p = 0.868). In contrast, another study on diabetes mellitus reported certain predisposition in some breeds such as the Samoyed and the Cairn Terrier (Davison et al, 2005).

When assessing HOMA index levels in diabetic patients, higher levels were observed when compared with the normoglycemic group (Table 3). However, ANOVA of the four groups showed no significant differences between the HOMA normoglycemic groups of the obese and normal weight patients (F = 0.182; p = 0.670) and between the HOMA obese diabetic and normal weight diabetic group (F = 0.090; p = 0.965).

Table 3: HOMA index in diabetic, normoglycemic, normal weight and obese patients.

Table 4: Insulin levels in diabetic, normoglycemic, normal weight and obese patients.

In addition, no significant association was observed between the body condition and number of patients with altered HOMA index (2 = 3,056; p = 0.08). Of the 15 control patients, 13 showed HOMA scores of <2.9; only two with a score of >2.9; whereas among overweight and obese patients, 10 and 7 had scores of <2.9 and >2.9, respectively.

Metabolic analysis showed that insulin resistance assessed using the HOMA index did not reflect a significant relationship with the body condition. This could suggest a greater implication of insulin level for assessing insulin resistance (Table 4), which is consistent with the data of another study on cardiovascular diseases associated with weight and hyperinsulinemia (Tropf et al, 2017). Despite the differences in mean insulin levels, insulin levels were higher in obese patients than in normal weight ones, and this difference was not significant when performing ANOVA (F = 1.004; p = 0.393). However, insulin in patients with greater body condition tended to increase, which is consistent with what another study established regarding insulin resistance in canines (Verkest et al, 2011).

When assessing body condition in diabetic patients, 15 of the 40 patients presented with a score of >5/9 at the time of sampling. All these 15 patients had low insulin levels and required insulin. It could not be clearly determined whether they had type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes that had become type 1 diabetes due to pancreatic β cells glucotoxicity. Canines could be classified as being closer to the phenotype of a human with type 1 diabetes when there is an apparent lack of insulin-resistant factors associated with obesity, which then progresses into a state of glucose intolerance as well as the need for insulin use in most patients (Catchpole et al, 2008).

Conclusion

We found no significant alteration between the HOMA index and the weight of dogs, which would confirm the state of insulin deficiency by insulin resistance, thus proving the metabolic differences between humans and canines. Thus, further studies are required to focus on autoimmune diseases that could supplement underlying mechanisms in this species.

Bibliographic References

Abbas, A. K., Lichtman, A. H., Pillai, S. Basic immunology: functions and disorders of the immune system. Elsevier Health Sciences 2014.

Ader, M., Stefanovski, D., Richey, J. M., Kim, S. P., Kolka, C. M., Ionut, V., Bergman, R. N. Failure of homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance to detect marked diet-induced insulin resistance in dogs. Diabetes 2014; 63(6): 1914-1919.

Biourge V, Elliott D, Pibot P. Enciclopedia de la Nutrición Clínica Canina. Royal Canin. Paris, Editorial Aniwa Pub 2008; 514 pp.

Feldman, E., Nelson, R., Reusch, C., Scott-Moncrieff, J. Canine and feline endocrinology. Elsevier Health Sciences 2014; pp 214-219.

Catchpole, B., Kennedy, L. J., Davison, L. J., Ollier, W. E. R. Canine diabetes mellitus: from phenotype to genotype. Journal of Small Animal Practice 2008; 49(1): 4-10.

Castro, A. V., Woolcott, O. O., Iyer, M. S., Kabir, M., Ionut, V., Stefanovski, D., Paszkiewicz, R. L. Increase in visceral fat per se does not induce insulin resistance in the canine model. Obesity 2015; 23(1): 105-111.

Churchill, J., Ward, E. Communicating with pet owners about obesity: Roles of the Veterinary Health Care Team. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice 2016; 46(5): 899-911.

Couto, C., Nelson, R. Medicina Interna de pequeños animales. España, Editorial Elsevier 2010; 1467 pp.

Cox, A., Hess, R., Kushner, J., Lam, C., Rankin, M., Shields, E., Van Winkle, T. Extreme beta-cell deficiency in pancreata of dog with canine diabetes. PLoS One 2015; 10: 1-19.

Davison, L.J., Herrtage, M.E., Catchpole, B. Study of 253 dogs in the United Kingdom with diabetes mellitus. Veterinary Record 2005; 156: 467-471.

Kennedy, L. J., Davison, L. J., Barnes, A., Short, A. D., Fretwell, N., Jones, C. A. Catchpole, B. Identification of susceptibility and protective major histocompatibility complex haplotypes in canine diabetes mellitus. Tissue Antigens 2006; 68(6): 467-476.

Kim, S. P., Ellmerer, M., Van Citters, G. W., Bergman, R. N. Primacy of hepatic insulin resistance in the development of the metabolic syndrome induced by an isocaloric moderate-fat diet in the dog. Diabetes 2003; 52(10): 2453-2460.

Rucinsky, R., Cook, A., Haley, S., Nelson, R., Zoran, D. L., Poundstone, M. AAHA diabetes management guidelines for dogs and cats. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association 2010; 46(3): 215-224.

Tropf, M., Nelson, O. L., Lee, P. M., Weng, H. Y. Cardiac and metabolic variables in obese dogs. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine 2017; 31(4): 1000-1007.

Tvarijonaviciute, A., Ceron, J. J., Holden, S. L., Cuthbertson, D. J., Biourge, V., Morris, P. J., German, A. J. Obesity-related metabolic dysfunction in dogs: a comparison with human metabolic syndrome. BMC Veterinary Research 2012; 8: 147.

Verkest, K. R., Rand, J. S., Fleeman, L. M., Morton, J. M., Richards, A. A., Rose, F. J., Whitehead, J. P. Distinct adiponectin profiles might contribute to differences in susceptibility to type 2 diabetes in dogs and humans. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 2011; 41(2): 67-73.

Verkest, K. R., Fleeman, L. M., Rand, J. S., Morton, J. M. Basal measures of insulin sensitivity and insulin secretion and simplified glucose tolerance tests in dogs. Domestic Animal Endocrinology 2010; 39(3): 194-204.

Como citar:  González-Villar, F.; Perez-Bravo, F. HOMA metabolic assessment in normoglycemic and diabetic canines. Revista Veterinaria y Zootecnia. n, v. 13, n. 2, p. 14-23, 2019. http:// vetzootec.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=273. DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.2

Esta obra está bajo una Licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento CC BY 

Chronic Superficial Keratitis

RESEARCH

ARTICLE

Daniel Uribe-Castillo¹ 

¹ Department of Veterinary Ophthalmology, Mascotas Centro de Especialistas, Manizales, Colombia

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Received: 12 october de 2018 and Approved: 16 january 2019, Updated: 16 june 2019

DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.3

                         SUMMARY. Introduction: Chronic superficial keratitis is an inflammatory disease in canines, especially German Shepherds, that progresses by irritative stimuli such as ultraviolet radiation and dust. It presents a favorable prognosis for vision and eye comfort from an early diagnosis approach and an adequate therapeutic plan. Multiple treatment options have been proposed demonstrating that anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory eye drops are highly effective. Patient and methods: Herein we report the clinical case of a 5-year-old German Shepherd with chronic superficial keratitis. Conclusion: topical prednisolone and cyclosporine and avoidance of ultraviolet radiation resulted in clinical improvement of this patient.

Key words: inflammatory, immunomodulatory, keratitis, ultraviolet

Queratitis Superficial Crónica

                                              RESUMEN: Introducción: La queratitis superficial crónica del ovejero alemán es una enfermedad inflamatoria acelerada por estímulos irritativos como la radiación ultravioleta y el polvo, presenta un pronóstico favorable para la visión y el confort ocular a partir de un abordaje diagnóstico precoz y un adecuado plan terapéutico. Se han planteado múltiples opciones de tratamiento para la condición, demostrándose que los colirios antiinflamatorios e inmunomoduladores tienen gran efectividad. Paciente y métodos: el presente artículo muestra el caso clínico de un canino de 5 años con queratitis superficial crónica. Conclusiones: La prednisolona y ciclosporina tópica, además de prevención de radiación ultravioleta produjeron mejoría clínica del paciente.

Palabras clave: inflamatoria, inmunomodulador, queratitis, ultravioleta.

Introduction

Chronic superficial keratitis (CSK) of canines, formerly known as Pannus or Uberreiter’s Syndrome, classically presents as a corneal fibrovascular lesion (Gellat et al., 2014) with bilateral growth of vascular inflammatory tissue originating from the corneoscleral limbus. CSK is an inflammatory disease that usually affects German Shepherds, Belgian Shepherds, and their crosses. However, similar characteristics have been reported in Greyhounds, Shetland Sheepdogs, Siberian Huskies, Scotch Collies, Border Collies, Australian Shepherds, and Dachshunds (Martin, 2010).

A progressive lesion and inflammatory behavior have the potential to cause visual loss in canines (Samuelson & Brooks, 2011). The clinical picture usually starts from the inferior and temporal quadrants of the cornea, and the inflammatory and pigmentation process progresses to the rest of the cornea. Over time, the chronic disease can begin from the nasal sclerocorneal limbus. Similar to multiple diseases that involve superficial corneal vascularization, limbal melanocytic migration occurs in CSK. The upper portion of the cornea is usually intact during the early stages. Some canines may develop further inflammation as well as conjunctival and nictitating membrane pigmentation (Gellat et al., 2014).

The exact cause is unknown, although cellular immunity to corneal and uveal antigens has been demonstrated, as observed in other chronic corneal pathological processes. During the early stages, epithelial cells proliferate and the superficial stroma is infiltrated by plasma cells and lymphocytes. As the condition persists, cells such as melanocytes, histiocytes, and fibrocytes also penetrate the cornea. During the advanced stages, the epithelium and superficial stroma are strongly pigmented and vascularized. Generally, the corneal epithelium remains intact throughout the duration of the condition, but during the inflammatory stage, there may be granulation tissue that generates positive fluorescein staining (Maggs et al., 2013). Corneal lipid deposits may be observed, but ulcerative keratitis is rare (Petersen & Crispin, 2002). It is believed to be due to hypersensitivity to corneal proteins induced by environmental factors such as ultraviolet (UV) light, dust and wind. The most common age of presentation is between 2 and 7 years (Herrera, 2007). Animals with greater exposure to UV radiation exhibit more severe clinical signs (Maggs et al., 2013). Studies have shown that canines that live at altitudes above 7000 feet above sea level are 7.7 times more susceptible to CSK than those that live at lower altitudes (Gellat et al., 2014).

CSK is categorized into two stages according to its clinical signs. The first is an active stage of acute inflammatory processes with irritative signs such as epiphora and blepharospasm and the predominance of infiltrative growth. The second stage is the sequel and is characterized by the deposition of corneal melanin pigments. In addition, each stage can be subdivided into three subcategories (1–3) according to the third of the corneal diameter that the lesion covers (Herrera, 2007).

Diagnosis of the disease is generally presumptive when bilateral proliferative keratitis is presented in a predisposed breed, in addition to the response to anti-inflammatory therapy (Martin, 2010). Cytology usually shows lymphoplasmacytic cells (Maggs et al., 2013). Histopathological studies of affected corneas have revealed the infiltration of abundant blood vessels, lymphocytes, and plasma cells in the corneal stroma.

Pigmentary keratitis resulting from other causes of chronic irritation such as trichiasis, keratitis sicca, and scar granulation should be ruled out (Gellat et al., 2013).

The traditional treatment consists of the administration of topical, subconjunctival, or systemic steroids according to the degree of condition. In addition, techniques such as a superficial keratectomy for sequential stages are indicated (Herrera, 2007). Treatments with cyclosporine, tacrolimus, and pimecrolimus have demonstrated efficacy for treating CSK. Additional therapies such as cryotherapy and beta radiation have been used to remove and disperse the corneal pigment, in addition to suppressing inflammation in cases where steroid management is difficult (Martin, 2010).

The therapeutic objective is to generate regression of the lesion to avoid blindness. The frequency of topical therapy is usually reduced as clinical signs are controlled (Maggs et al., 2013). The prognosis for preserving vision and controlling the disease might be unfavorable in those animals that show an accelerated evolution; however, most affected dogs have a positive response to anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive treatment (Dubielzig et al., 2010). Thus, the disease can be controlled but not cured (Samuelson & Brooks, 2011).

Patient Evaluation

Case History

A 5-year-old German Shepherd presented for a consultation due to bilateral corneal lesions that caused ocular discomfort (blepharospasm and epiphora) for 2 months. The canine resided in a rural area in the outskirts of the city, and the owners reported that the patient endured long days under intense sunlight.

Clinical findings

The systemic condition of the patient did not show signs of any additional pathology and the ophthalmological evaluation also did not show any other alterations. Tear production in both the eyes was in the normal range of the Schirmer I test (Merck Animal Health, Summit, NJ, USA). The fluorescein test (Bioglo Ophthalmic Strip, CA, USA) was negative for both the eyes. Denture tonometry revealed the intraocular pressure of 23.8 and 20.1 mmHg for the right and left eyes, respectively. The evaluation of posterior segments and fundoscopy did not show any abnormalities. Corneal evaluation identified a bilateral corneal lesion starting in the inferotemporal quadrant with vascular characteristic in the form of a granuloma (Figures 1 and 2). In addition, the patient presented with mild conjunctival congestion and moderate epiphora and blepharospasm. The diagnosis was active stage 1 CSK due to the acute inflammatory phase and corneal invasion.

Figure 1. The right eye inflammatory lesion originating from the inferior temporal limbus

Figure 2. The left eye inflammatory lesion originating from the inferior temporal limbus

Therapeutic approach

Prednisolone acetate 1% (Pred F®, Allergan, Colombia) and cyclosporine 1% (Holliday, Argentina) were topically administered thrice a day. Furthermore, the avoidance of prolonged exposure to solar radiation using canine UV protection lenses was recommended (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The patient with UV protection glasses

Reassessment of the patient after 30 days of treatment revealed total improvement of the initial signs present during the consultation, in addition to the disappearance of the corneal vascular tissue that was replaced by melanin pigmentary tissue (Figures 4 and 5). Due to the incurable nature of the disease, six-monthly checks were indicated to prevent relapses and to reduce the risk of visual loss.

Figure 4. Right eye corneal scar pigment tissue

Figure 5. Left eye corneal scar pigment tissue

Discussion

Previously, CSK was considered as a pathology without predilection for gender (Herrera, 2007), but studies have shown that females have a higher prevalence of the pathology (Gellat et al., 2013). Immunohistochemical studies have suggested that the condition is not an autoimmune process but an inflammatory one that is mediated by perilimbal lymphatic tissue cells, probably under the stimulation of UV light (Herrera, 2007).

A previous study compared three groups and three treatments for the active stage of CSK. The first group was treated with topical, subconjunctival, or systemic steroids only, the second group with cyclosporine, and the last group was treated with a mixture of steroids plus cyclosporine. Group 3 was the one that showed the best results, whereas the second group showed the worst results (Herrera, 2007).

Conclusion

CSK is an incurable ocular pathology, but with opportune treatment, it can have a favorable visual and ocular comfort prognosis. It is important to recognize the characteristic clinical condition and from its classification, suggest the best treatment for the respective case. In addition, it is important to inform the owners that the disease is incurable and that the animal will require treatment for the rest of its life.

Bibliographical references

Dubielzig, R.; Ketring, K.; McLellan, G.; Albert, D. Diseases of the cornea and sclera. Veterinary ocular pathology a comparative review. Saunders Elsevier, St. Louis, p. 212-213. 2010.

Gellat, K. Canine cornea: diseases and surgery. Essentials of veterinary ophthalmology, 3th ed. Wiley Blackwell, Iowa, p. 237-238. 2014.

Gellat, K.; Gilger, B.; Kern, T. Diseases and surgery of the canine cornea and sclera. Veterinary ophthalmology, 5th ed. Wiley Blackwell, Iowa, p. 1012-1013. 2013.

Herrera, D. Enfermedades de la córnea. Oftalmología clínica en animales de compañía. Inter-médica, Buenos Aires, p. 126. 2007.

Maggs, D.; Miller, P.; Ofri, R. Cornea and sclera. Slatter´s fundamentals of veterinary ophthalmology, 5th ed. Elsevier, St. Louis, p. 205-206. 2013.

Martin, C. Cornea and sclera. Ophthalmic disease in veterinary medicine. Manson, London, p. 257-258. 2010.

Petersen, S.; Crispin, S. BSAVA manual of small animal ophthalmology, 2nd ed. BSAVA, Gloucester, 143p. 2002.

Samuelson, D.; Brooks, D. Small animal ophthalmology. Manson, London, 52p. 2011.

Como citar: Uribe-Castillo, D. Queratitis superficial crónica. Revista Veterinaria y Zootecnia, v. 13, n. 2, p. 24-30, 2019. http:// vetzootec.ucaldas.edu.co/index.php/component/content/article?id=274. DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.3

Esta obra está bajo una Licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento CC BY 

Anatomical Distribution of Subcutaneous Fat and its Relationship with Body Condition Score in Pack Mules from the Central Andean Area of Colombia*

ARTÍCULO DE

INVESTIGACIÓN

Juan C Velásquez-Mosquera¹, MV, MSc

Juan D Corrales-Álvarez², Zoot, MSc, PhD 

* Study related to the research project “Characterization of working mules in panela cane production systems from the west region of Cundinamarca” funded by the Research Vice-Rectory of Universidad de la Salle and Fedepanela.

1 Professor-Researcher, REMEAT group (Reproduction and Improvement in Tropical Animals)

2 Professor-Researcher in the Research group on sustainable animal production, College of Agricultural Sciences, Universidad de la Salle, Carrera 7 179-03, Bogotá, Colombia.

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Recibido: 19 julio de 2018, Aprobado: 17 febrero de 2019, actualizado: 15 junio de 2019

DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.1

                         SUMMARY. Introduction: In the Colombian Andean mountain areas, mules are the basis for the development of agricultural activities of smallholders. In the management of mules, the empirical knowledge of farmers predominates for the nutritional aspect, which implies having the animals in optimal body condition for the task of pack loading. One of the important aspects of management related to animal welfare is the determination of body condition (level of fatness), which is calculated via subjective (visual) and objective techniques such as real-time ultrasound fat thickness measurement. Aims: The aim of the present study was to determine the fatness using ultrasound in different anatomical regions of the body and its association with body condition scores (BCSs) in working mules. Methods: Mules (n = 43) aged 5–30 years, from four municipalities in the western area of Cundinamarca, were measured in each sample. Mules were assigned a BCS value (1–9) based on visual appraisal and palpation of the dorsal and lumbar areas, area behind the shoulder, withers, and tail head as well as by measuring the subcutaneous fat thickness using ultrasound in five anatomical sites [back fat thickness (BFT), loin fat thickness (LFT), hearth fat thickness (HFT), wither fat thickness (WFT), and hip fat thickness (FHT)]. Results: The mean BCS in the mules was 5.2 ± 1.1 and the mean subcutaneous fat thickness for the sites BFT, LFT, HFT, WFT, and FHT were 5.2 ± 2.1 mm, 3.9 ± 0.8 mm, 7.0 ± 2.2 mm, 4.7 ± 1.5, and 4.2 ± 1.2 mm, respectively. Correlation coefficient between BCS and BFT was r = 0.39 (p <0.01), that between BCS and HFT was 0.49 (p <0.01), and that between BCS and HFT was r = 0.43 (p < 0.01). Conclusion: We concluded that the distribution of subcutaneous fatness is different for the five anatomical sites evaluated, demonstrating a greater fatness in the hearth region followed by the back region.

Key words: fatness, working equids, ultrasound.

Distribución anatómica de la grasa subcutánea y su relación con el puntaje de condición corporal en mulas de carga del área Centro Andina Colombiana

                         RESUMEN. Introducción: en las zonas andinas de montaña colombiana las mulas son la base para el desarrollo de actividades agrícolas de económicas campesinas. En el manejo de las mulas predomina el conocimiento empírico de los campesinos para el aspecto nutricional, que implican tener animales en condición corporal óptima para el trabajo de carga. Uno de los aspectos importantes de manejo relacionado con el bienestar animal es la determinación de la condición corporal (nivel de engrasamiento), la cual puede ser calculada por medio de técnicas subjetivas (visuales) y objetivas como la medición del espesor de grasa por ultrasonido. Objetivos: El objetivo del estudio fue determinar el engrasamiento en diferentes regiones anatómicas corporales y su relación con el puntaje de condición corporal (PCC) en mulas de trabajo. Métodos: Se midieron mulares con edades entre 5 y 30 años, de 4 municipios del occidente de Cundinamarca (n=42). En cada ejemplar se midió el PCC escala (1-9) de forma visual y el espesor de grasa subcutánea usando ultrasonido en 5 sitios anatómicos (dorsal - EGD, lumbar - EGL, cincha - EGC, cruz - EGCR y anca - EGA). Resultados: El PCC promedio en las mulas fue de 5,2±1,1 y los promedios de espesor de grasa subcutánea encontrados para las regiones EGD, EGL, EGC, EGCR y EGA fueron 5,2±2,1 mm, 3,9±0,8 mm, 7,0±2,2 mm, 4,7±1,5 y 4,2±1,2 mm, respectivamente. Se encontraron correlaciones moderadas entre PCC y EGD (r=0,39; p<0,01), PCC y EGA (0,49; p<0,01), PCC y EGC (r=0,43, p<0,01. Conclusiones: Se concluye que la distribución del engrasamiento subcutáneo es diferente para los 5 sitios anatómicos evaluados, evidenciando un mayor engrasamiento en la región de la cincha seguida por la región dorsal.

Palabras clave: engrasamiento, équidos de trabajo, ultrasonido.

Introduction

Body condition score (BCS) is an essential tool used to monitor the wellbeing and the nutrition of working equids. The need to closely monitor the body condition of working animals has led to a search for tools that facilitate quick and non-invasive estimation of animal fatness (Silva et al 2016).

BCS systems are currently used to assess body fat, although their ability to accurately reflect adiposity in equids has been debated (Argo et al 2014). Despite the simplicity posed by the use of BCS in equids, the ability of untrained operators to accurately assess BCSs remains a cause of concern (Mottet et al 2009). Therefore, tools have been developed that enable accurate and non-invasive estimation of the body composition. Some of the tools that have gained popularity in the previous decade include real-time ultrasound (RTU), which has widely been used in livestock management due to its operative features and has recently been applied to equids (Quaresma et al 2013 and Superchi et al 2014). Although RTU is not used in working equids on a routine basis, it has been proven to be advantageous in several countries: it offers adequate spatial resolution, is well accepted, and can be easily performed on an animal standing up within countryside conditions (Quaresma et al 2013).

Several reports have used BCS to assess fatness in horses (Silva et al 2016, Martin-Giménez et al 2016). Besides the visual traditional method, other studies performed with horses and donkeys have used RTU to assess animal fatness (Quaresma et al 2013; Velásquez et al 2016). The animal fatness was assessed to discover the possible associations between their performance in a specific activity and optimal nutritional management or, in other cases, to determine the relationship between equid’s body condition and their wellbeing. Moderate-to-high correlations have been reported between the methods used to evaluate fatness in horses (Gee et al 2011, Velásquez et al 2016) and donkeys (Quaresma et al 2013). In studies performed by Gee et al (2003), subcutaneous fat measurements performed by ultrasound on the hips of sport horses were correlated with the BCS value (p = 0.001) and accounted for the 71% of the variation observed in the carcass weight (p = 0.002).

A few reports that performed post-mortem evaluations in different types of equids found differences in the subcutaneous fatness distribution of the carcass weight (Fabregas & Such, 1998). These studies attribute the differences observed among species to factors related to the animal weight, its sex, and the age at which the animal was slaughtered; however, typically, a higher level of subcutaneous and abdominal fat was observed in the carcass weight of horses, whereas a higher level of hip and flank fat was found in the carcass weight of donkeys. Mules presented higher levels of abdominal fat than horses (Fabregas and Such, 1998).

Research regarding fatness estimations performed in Colombian mules through subjective or objective techniques is lacking, and studies on these equids with regard to their nutritional management and wellbeing, among other topics, are scarce. Therefore, an exploratory study was proposed to elucidate the fatness distribution in pack mules via objective and subjective methods in an important panela production region located in the Central Andean region of Colombia.

Materials and Methods

Location and samples

Panela producers and mule owners from Gualivá Province in Cundinamarca, in the Central Andean region of Colombia, participated in the present study. The Gualivá Province is characterized by the development of commercial mountain agriculture between 1000 and 1800 m above sea level, with a coffee production region being located between 1200 and 1800 m above sea level and a panela cane production region being located between 1000 and 1500 m above sea level (DANE, 2015).

To develop the exploratory study, different districts and municipalities of the Gualivá where health brigades have been developed were visited, and a group of animals was selected to evaluate their body condition level via objective and subjective methods.

A total of 43 pack mules were enrolled from the municipalities of Villeta, Utica, Nimaima, and Vergara. Animal age was determined using dental chronometry and it ranged from 5 to 30 years.

Nutritional management

Each owner was questioned regarding the nutritional management of their animals. In most cases, the mules shared a similar diet (Table 1) consisting of grazing on grasses (Brachiaria decumbens), supplemented by cut forage (Panicum máximum) and melote, a subproduct of panela cane production that has a compact and dark appearance and a sweet taste (obtained from cachaça dehydration during milling and used as an animal diet supplement) (Fedepanela, 2010).

Table 1. Type and level of supplementation in working mules

Measurements

An Aquila Vet ultrasound scanner (transducer with a 3.5 MHz frequency and an 18-cm probe) was used. Images were recorded and interpreted using the ODT software (optical data transfer).

The subcutaneous muscle and fat measurements via ultrasound in mules were obtained as follows: The loin eye area (LEA) was evaluated in square centimeters and the thickness of subcutaneous fat was evaluated in five anatomical sites and expressed in millimeters. The five anatomical sites were adapted according to the methodology used by Quaresma et al (2013) to measure fat in donkeys using ultrasound (Figures 1 and 2):

1. Wither fat thickness (WFT), costal area: the probe was placed perpendicular to the withers.

2. Back fat thickness (BFT), back region: the probe was placed perpendicular to the spine, in the upper portion of the penultimate intercostal space. LEA was measured in that same place.

3. Loin fat thickness (LFT), loin region: the probe was placed longitudinally, 2 cm beneath the lumbar vertebrae and above the flank.

4. Hip fat thickness (FHT), hip region: the probe was placed longitudinally and parallel to the spine, at the hip region, between the os coxae and ischium.

5. Hearth fat thickness (HFT), hearth region: The probe was placed longitudinally, at the abdominal cavity level, in the lateral portion of the hearth, between the intercostal spaces 6 and 7.

Figure 1. Sites used to measure fatness in mules through ultrasound

Figure 2. Site of screening on the back region in mules

Weight was estimated using hypometric measurements, and BCS was performed using the subjective visual and tactile scale of body condition suggested by Henneke et al (1983), ranging from 1 to 9 (where 1 is too thin, 4 and 5 are acceptable, and 9 is obese); this scale evaluates 6 sites of the animal’s body: neck, withers, ribs, loin, behind the shoulders, and tail head. In all animals, BCS was estimated by the same technician, who was trained in performing RTU technique.

Statistical analysis

The analysis included descriptive statistics. Furthermore, a multiple correlation analysis was performed between the measurements obtained using ultrasound and the BCS using Statgraphics Centurion XVII software.

Results and Discussion

The mean values for weight, BCS, subcutaneous fat thickness, LEA, and fatness are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Mean fatness values obtained via the visual technique and using ultrasound in mules

Abbreviations: BFT, Back fat thickness; LFT, Loin fat thickness; HFT, Hearth fat thickness; WFT, Wither fat thickness; FHT, Hip fat thickness; LEA, Loin eye area; BCS, Body condition score

Weight

The mean weight of mules in the area ranged from 253 to 294 kg; these values were associated with medium-small sized mules, which are the type of animals typically used for packing activities in mountain slope areas.

Loin eye area

Although measuring LEA was not the main purpose of the study, this value was estimated, and it reflected some differences in the muscle conformation of animals—the conformation was higher in mules from Villeta and Utica compared with those from other areas. These values depend on the type and the parents involved in the dihybrid cross.

Fatness estimation using the body condition score

BCS was based on the Henneke (1985) scale, which is scored via visual appraisal and palpation of the covering fat in several anatomical areas of the medium and posterior third of the animal. This determination yielded acceptable mean values (Figure 3). According to this technique, an optimal BCS value ranges from 5 to 7 depending on each equid, because it varies depending on the animal’s breed and purpose; accordingly, thin scores are acceptable for sport horses and higher scores are acceptable for horses for other purposes, such as riding and packing. In other equids, such as mules, studies reporting the optimal BCSs according to different purposes are lacking.

In the present study, 54% of the mules evaluated demonstrated scores from 5 to 6, which are considered as optimal values; 24% of mules demonstrated values beyond this optimal score and 22% demonstrated values below it (Table 3). However, owners reported that, regardless of their fatness, all animals performed well in activities related to the packing and transport of harvest and supplies.

Figure 3. Anatomical site around the tail evaluated to measure body condition

The mean BCS value (Table 2) was similar to the values reported by González et al (2013), Quaresma et al (2013), and Silva et al (2016) for horses and donkeys, respectively, and was higher than the values reported by Pritchard et al (2005), who described deficient body conditions among working equids (mules, donkeys and horses) in India, Egypt, Pakistan, and Jordan, where 70% of the equids exhibited a BCS of <3.

Table 3. Frequency of distribution of the body condition score in mules

Fatness estimation using real-time ultrasound

From the five evaluated sites, the highest thickness of subcutaneous fatness was observed at the hearth and back regions; this could be attributed to the animal’s productive purpose because these are the two sites that have the most contact with the farming tools and packsaddles, thereby being the sites that bear the load and require a higher fat covering. The higher abdominal fatness observed in our study is consistent with the findings reported by Fabregas and Such, (1998), who described high fatness in the carcass weight of mules from Spain. Moreover, a significant correlation was observed between body weight and BFT (Table 3). Other anatomical areas with lower contact and load support can have lower subcutaneous fat deposits. However, estimation of subcutaneous fat in low accumulation anatomical areas using RTU is challenging, because it is not feasible for the ultrasound technician to identify small variations in subcutaneous fat thickness. Furthermore, it has been suggested that the estimations of fat thickness performed using RTU would be more accurate in heavier animals, animals with higher body fat reserves, and adult animals (Sttoufer et al 2004) owing to the lesser number of errors associated with an over- or underestimation of fat measurements obtained using ultrasound. Upon evaluating horses, Kane et al (1987) concluded that the estimation of subcutaneous fat thickness using ultrasound could be incorrectly correlated with body fat when the areas of lower fat accumulation are measured owing to the difficulty in obtaining accurate measurements for such areas. In the present study, the 3.5 MHz transducer and the ODT software used for image interpretation produced images of acceptable quality that could be visualized to perform fat thickness measurements.

Although the values of body fatness obtained could not be compared with the literature reports on mules, it is possible to use RTU for some comparisons with studies performed on equids and donkeys, which are the parent species of mule hybrids.

BFT and WFT values observed in mules were similar to the values reported for equids/donkeys by González et al (2013) and Quaresma et al (2013), higher than the BFT values reported for sport horses by Velásquez-Mosquera et al (2016), and lower than the values reported for horses and donkeys by Silva et al (2016) and for working cow horses by Martin-Giménez (2016). HFT values were similar to the ones reported for donkeys by Quaresma et al (2013).

FHT values were lower than those reported for working cow horses by Martin-Giménez (2016); this type of equid is considered to accumulate higher levels of fat to develop traction energy in the posterior chain.

Correlation between the methods used to estimate fatness in mules

The ultrasound measurements of fat thickness that showed the highest correlation with the subjective BCS measurement were BFT, FHT, and HFT. Within ultrasound measurements, a significant correlation was observed between the following measurements: BFT and FHT, BFT and LFT, and FHT and HFT. No correlation was observed between other measurements such as LFT and WFT (Table 4).

Correlations were observed between the BCS measurements and FHT determined using ultrasound, which were similar to the ones reported by Gee et al (2003) and González et al (2013) in equids.

Table 4. Correlation between fatness measurements in mules

* Significant (p < 0.01)                     

** Highly significant (p < 0.05)                   

NS Not significant                            

Abbreviations: BFT, Back fat thickness; LFT, Loin fat thickness; HFT, Hearth fat thickness; WFT, Wither fat thickness; FHT, Hip fat thickness; LEA, Loin eye area; BCS, Body condition score

Table 4 proves the correlations between the values for subcutaneous fat thickness measured using ultrasound and BCS assigned to each animal, with three anatomical sites demonstrating a high degree of significance: BFT, FHT, and HFT.

Conclusions

RTU proved to be an accurate tool for the determination of subcutaneous fat thickness in different anatomical sites of mules. Subcutaneous fat distribution differed in the five anatomical sites evaluated, showing a higher level of fatness in the hearth region of the evaluated animals, followed by the back region.

The correlations observed between some ultrasound measurements and BCS suggest that both methods can be used to measure reserve fat in working mules. Based on the correlation coefficients observed between BCS and the ultrasound BFT, FHT, and HFT measurements, these anatomical sites could be considered as visual reference points to define subcutaneous fat level in mules. Other anatomical sites of subcutaneous fat measured using RTU were not useful in the quantification of body fatness in working mules.

Acknowledgements

We thank Universidad de la Salle for the financial support as well as the Fedepanela organization. We are grateful to every owner and handler of mules who were invited and participated in the meetings conducted in the municipalities of Gualivá Province, Cundinamarca, Colombia.

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Como citar:  Velásquez-Mosquera J. C.; Corrales-Álvarez J. D. Anatomical Distribution of Subcutaneous Fat and its Relationship with Body Condition Score in Pack Mules from the Central Andean Area of Colombia. Revista Veterinaria y Zootecnia. n, v. 13, n. 2, p. 01-13, 2019. http://190.15.17.25/vetzootec/index.php/component/content/article?id=272. DOI: 10.17151/vetzo.2019.13.2.1

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